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Explain how the slogan ‘the personal is political’ addresses the issue of women’s oppression and discrimination? (15M) Approach of answer Feminism stands for the concern with the status and role of women in society in relation to men. As an ideology, it points to the bias within political thought by keeping role of women off the political agenda. The slogan "The Personal is Political" emerged as a defining idea of Second-Wave Feminism during the 1960s and 1970s. It challenged the traditional liberal distinction between the public sphere (politics) and the private sphere (family and personal life) by arguing that women's everyday experiences of oppression are not merely personal problems but manifestations of broader structures of power and patriarchy. Second-wave’ feminism acknowledged that the achievement of political and legal rights had not solved the ‘women's question’. It was characterized by more radical concern with women’s liberation especially in private sphere. The goal of ‘second-wave’ feminism was not merely political emancipation but ‘women's liberation’, reflected in the ideas of the growing Women's Liberation Movement during 1960’s - 70’s. Such a goal could not be achieved by political reforms or legal changes alone. Modern feminists argued there was need of a radical and revolutionary process of social change. Redefining the Political Traditionally politics as an activity takes place within a public sphere which comprises government institutions, political parties, pressure groups and public debate. Private sphere is considered as non-political comprising of family life and personal relationships. For Feminists, politics exist where there is social conflict. Modern Feminists like Kate Millet defined politics as power structured relationships whereby one group of persons is controlled by another. Thus, all relationships are political in nature. E.g. employers- workers, husbands-wives, parents-children. Feminists have sought to challenge the divide between public man and private woman and proclaims “The Personal is political” Personal is political The statement is given by Carole Hanish and seeks to provide a feminist explanation of politics. Susan Moller Okin in her book “ Gender , Justice and Family ” provides interpretation of the term personal is political. Personal is political means personal sphere is not free from power. Politics pervades family and personal relations which are generally considered as non-political. There is subordination and domination within family. State and politics infiltrates family by laws relating to marriage and personal laws. State made laws influence women’s status. State though appears neutral is rather an institution of patriarchy and State laws are just an eyewash. Patriarchal values of society come from patriarchal family. Family shapes the value system governing socio-political life. E.g. child observes subordinate status of mother at home and thus does not find it abnormal when same occurs outside home. There is spill over effect of gendered division of labour in family and public life. Women are under dual burden i.e. domestic and professional. Economic subordination results into social discrimination. Kate Millett in Sexual Politics (1970) portrays patriarchy as a ‘social constant’ running through all political, social and economic structures and grounded in a process of conditioning that operates largely through the family i.e ‘patriarchy’s chief institution’ The relationship between the sexes was based on power and further sustained by an ideology. It was similar to the relationship between classes and races. Hence, it should be treated as political relationship. Modern feminists insist that ‘the personal is the political’. The goal of liberation means a reexamination of traditional family roles and a redistribution of domestic and child-rearing responsibilities. Radical feminists may require the outright abolition of the family and a wholesale social revolution.

The nature of the relationship between equality of democratic citizenship and liberty of citizens is influenced by economic equality. Comment. (15M) Approach of answer The evolution of human society is the story of evolution of equality. Among all the normative ideals ,it stands apart because it is linked with human dignity. Unlike ancient notion of Aristotle that points " Treating Equals equally, unequals unequally" , modern political theorists debate notions of procedural vs substantive equality. It lies at the heart of normative political theory. The modern notion of citizenship in democracies seeks to strike a balance between freedom and equality.These guarantees of equal citizenship and liberty in democracies will be an empty claim if inequalities persist in society. Ambedkar argues that political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it social democracy. Classical liberals emphasize on equality in moral sense and human beings are equal in dignity. Locke advocates equal natural rights. However they give primacy to liberty over equality. Rousseau distinguishes between natural and conventional inequalities where privileges some men enjoy to the exclusion of others. For Rousseau, this inequality transforms the dynamic of social relations. Marxist critique pointed that political equality under capitalism is merely formal. Workers possess equal vote but not equal power. Capitalist system intensifies economic inequality and envisions communist society as classless society. Socialists give primacy to equality over liberty. Social Liberals accomodate concerns of socialists that there is a need for level playing field. In contemporary political philosophy, Rawls in his theory of Justice as fairness establishes that liberty is a precondition for equality. Inequality is justified only when it can be of use to least advantaged. According to Ronald Dworkin, the value of Equality is one of the most endangered value in contemporary liberal tradition. This is the reason that even prosperous democracies could not provide spdecent standards of life .Dworkin proposes equality of resources to help those who suffer from brute luck. T. H. Marshall argues that without social rights, political citizenship remains incomplete. Social rights reduce inequalities created by capitalism.Welfare state plays an important role in ensuring equal opportunities. Contemporary constitutional democracies therefore seek to reconcile liberty with equality recognising that economic equality is not the enemy of freedom but its essential precondition. The enduring challenge of political theory is to transform formal equality into substantive citizenship.

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Hello Everyone Those who are serious about UPSC. Tell Me what are those challenges, due to which you are not able to clear prelims and Mains ? Kaha galti ho rahi hai aapki ?? In the discussion Group you can write your Problems - https://t.me/+iAqnXGmD_yc3OTVl

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Explain how Rawls used the liberal and egalitarian perspective to develop his theory of Justice. (15M) Approach of answer Justice is the central and commanding concept of current mainstream normative political philosophy. Rawls theory of justice revived interest in political philosophy. It is a practical contribution to resolving the long standing tension between liberty and equality. Rawls theory of justice as fairness envisions a society of free citizens holding equal basic rights co operating within an egalitarian economic system. During his time, there were many social movements in USA. Thus, he sought to build a just society. Rawls principles of social justice are a corrective to the liberal utilitarian principle of greatest happiness of greatest number. According to him, utilitarianism is a morally flawed theory of justice. By drawing inspiration from Kant ,Rawls gives centrality to the moral principle of freedom and equality of every person. In his theory of justice, Justice is the first virtue of social institutions like truth is first virtue of any system of thought. Rawls retained core values of liberalism. He applies the social contract and goes for a thought experiment i.e. people in Original Position under veil of ignorance to arrive at rational principles of justice. The liberal emphasis in his first principle is equal right to most extensive liberty compatible with similar liberty of others. This freedom implies capacity to act according to principles of justice and pursue conception of good. Rawls egalitarianism can be emphasized is his other two principles of justice. He emphasized on Equality of opportunity for acquiring offices and positions and Difference principle. Difference principle permits inequalities only when they can be shown to benefit the least adapvantaged. Rawls establishes a chain connection to strengthen the weakest link on each occasion. He points that his principles of justice are in lexical priority and liberty will have preference over equality of opportunity. Rawls theory has been criticised on various grounds. C B Macpherson argues that Rawls theory of justice is rather an elegant defence of liberal democratic capitalist welfare state. Marxists argue that moral systems should be analysed in light of class relations and patterns of ownership of private property. Libertarians criticize that Rawls sacrificed liberty for the sake of equality. Samuel Gorowitz has significantly observed that Rawls is a redistributionist and emphasizes on distributive justice by placing the highest social value on the needs of neediest. Rawls has tried to combine different values systems in order to arrive at his theory of justice. He made justice a pluralistic concept.

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The above article explains that - 1. The threat to unipolar world order is not from bipolar or multipolar world order but from growing regionalisation of the international world order. 2. Even as the US tries to globalise the Ukraine war and Israel’s attack on Gaza and portrays it as a global issue, other countries have resisted this attempt and tried to view it as a regional issue. Example of Turkey is given in this regard. 3. The reason for states preferring regionalisation rather than engaging in global politics is because economic and technological relations have moved beyond the reach of the states, as the failure of sanctions on Iran and Russia demonstrates. 4. Balance of power in this case, thus, will not be between great powers or empires but between regions and middle powers that define geopolitics now.

How India responding to the idea of indo - pacific ?

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Concept Series Evolution of the Right to Vote through Supreme Court Judgments ⸻ 1. N.P. Ponnuswami v. Returning Officer (1952) Principle: Right to vote is not a Fundamental Right. It is a Statutory Right, created by election laws (Representation of the People Act). The Constitution only provides the framework for elections. Significance: ➡️ Laid down the original judicial position that voting is purely a statutory right. ⸻ 2. Sangram Singh v. Election Tribunal (1960) Principle: Election rights exist only because statutes create them. Election disputes must be governed strictly by election law. Significance: ➡️ Reaffirmed that electoral rights are statutory and regulated by Parliament. ⸻ 3. Kundan Lal v. Union of India (1960) Principle: Democracy is a constitutional principle. However, the individual’s right to vote flows from legislation and not directly from the Constitution. Significance: ➡️ Distinguished between constitutional democracy and the statutory right to vote. ⸻ 4. Union of India v. Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) (2002) Principle: Citizens have a Fundamental Right under Article 19(1)(a) to know: Criminal antecedents Educational qualifications Assets & liabilities of candidates Significance: ➡️ Introduced the Right to Know, making voting an informed constitutional exercise. ⸻ 5. People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) v. Union of India (2003) Principle: Voting remains a statutory right. However, the Freedom of Voting is protected under Article 19(1)(a). Significance: ➡️ Distinguished between: Right to Vote (Statutory) Freedom of Voting (Fundamental) ⸻ 6. People’s Union for Civil Liberties (NOTA Case) (2013) Principle: Directed introduction of NOTA (None of the Above). The freedom to reject all candidates is protected under Article 19(1)(a). Significance: ➡️ Expanded democratic choice by recognising the Right to Reject. ⸻ 7. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) Principle: Introduced the Basic Structure Doctrine. Democracy forms part of the Constitution’s Basic Structure. Significance: ➡️ Strengthened constitutional protection for democratic governance. ⸻ 8. Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975) Principle: Free and Fair Elections are part of the Constitution’s Basic Structure. Significance: ➡️ Parliament cannot destroy the integrity of electoral democracy. ⸻ Judicial Evolution at a Glance Phase I (1952–1960): Statutory Right Ponnuswami Sangram Singh Kundan Lal Position: Voting is purely a statutory right. ⬇️ Phase II (2002–2003): Constitutional Protection ADR PUCL Position: Right to Know → Fundamental Right Freedom of Voting → Fundamental Right Right to Vote → Still Statutory ⬇️ Phase III (2013): Democratic Choice PUCL (NOTA) Position: The Constitution protects the citizen’s Right to Reject candidates. — KUD IAS