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- 28 окт. 2020 г.🏆Oligopoly🏆 An oligopoly is a market form wherein a market or industry is dominated by a small group of large sellers (oligopolists). 👉Oligopolies can result from various forms of collusion that reduce market competition which then typically leads to higher prices for consumers. Oligopolies have their own market structure. 👉With few sellers, each oligopolist is likely to be aware of the actions of the others. 👉According to game theory, the decisions of one firm therefore influence and are influenced by decisions of other firms. 👉Strategic planning by oligopolists needs to take into account the likely responses of the other market participants. 👉Entry barriers include high investment requirements, strong consumer loyalty for existing brands and economies of scale. 👉In developed economies oligopolies dominate the economy as the perfectly competitive model is of negligible importance for consumers. 👉Oligopolies differ from price takers in that they do not have a supply curve. Instead, they search for the best price-output combination. 🏆Characteristics 👉An oligopoly maximizes profits. 👉Oligopolies are price setters rather than price takers. 👉Barriers to entry are high.The most important barriers are government licenses, economies of scale, patents, access to expensive and complex technology, and strategic actions by incumbent firms designed to discourage or destroy nascent firms. 👉"Few" – a "handful" of sellers. There are few firms so that the actions of one firm can influence the actions of the other firms. 👉Oligopolies can retain long run abnormal profits. High barriers of entry prevent sideline firms from entering market to capture excess profits. 👉Product may be homogeneous (steel) or differentiated (automobiles). 👉Oligopolies have perfect knowledge of their own cost and demand functions, but their inter-firm information may be incomplete. Buyers have only imperfect knowledge as to price, cost and product quality. 👉Oligopolies tend to compete on terms other than price. Loyalty schemes, advertisement, and product differentiation are all examples of Non-price competition. Credit : Wikipedia0,00%
- 22 окт. 2020 г.🏆Theocracy🏆 Theocracy is a form of government in which a deity of some type is recognized as the supreme ruling authority, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries that manage the day-to-day affairs of the government. 👉The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified Roman emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority of the Roman State. 👉The official offer of cultus to a living emperor acknowledged his office and rule as divinely approved and constitutional; his Principate should therefore demonstrate pious respect for traditional Republican deities and mores. 👉The term was initially coined by Flavius Josephus in the first century A.D. to describe the characteristic government of the Jews. 👉Josephus argued that while mankind had developed many forms of rule, most could be subsumed under the following three types: monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. 👉However, according to Josephus, the government of the Jews was unique. Josephus offered the term "theocracy" to describe this polity, ordained by Moses, in which God is sovereign and his word is law. 👉Josephus' definition was widely accepted until the Enlightenment era, when the term took on negative connotations and was hardly salvaged by Hegel's abstruse commentary. 👉The first recorded English use was in 1622, with the meaning "sacerdotal government under divine inspiration" ; the meaning "priestly or religious body wielding political and civil power" is recorded from 1825. Credit: Wikipedia0,00%
- 20 окт. 2020 г.@PoliticalScienceOptionalUpsc0,00%
- 18 окт. 2020 г.🏆The Iron Law of Oligarchy🏆 👉The iron law of oligarchy is a political theory first developed by the German sociologist Robert Michels in his book, "Political Parties". It asserts that rule by an elite, or oligarchy, is inevitable as an "iron law" within any democratic organization as part of the "tactical and technical necessities" of organization. 👉The Law states that, all complex organizations, regardless of how democratic they are when started, eventually develop into oligarchies. Michels observed that since no sufficiently large and complex organization can function purely as a direct democracy, power within an organization will always get delegated to individuals within that group, elected or otherwise. 👉Using anecdotes from political parties and trade unions struggling to operate democratically to build his argument in 1911, Michels addressed the application of this law to representative democracy, and stated: "Who says organization, says oligarchy." 👉He went on to state that "Historical evolution mocks all the prophylactic measures that have been adopted for the prevention of oligarchy." 👉According to Michels, all organizations eventually come to be run by a "leadership class", who often function as paid administrators, executives, spokespersons or political strategists for the organization. 👉Far from being "servants of the masses", Michels argues this "leadership class," rather than the organization's membership, will inevitably grow to dominate the organization's power structures. 👉By controlling who has access to information, those in power can centralize their power successfully, often with little accountability, due to the apathy, indifference and non-participation most rank-and-file members have in relation to their organization's decision-making processes. 👉Michels argues that democratic attempts to hold leadership positions accountable are prone to fail, since with power comes the ability to reward loyalty, the ability to control information about the organization, and the ability to control what procedures the organization follows when making decisions. 👉All of these mechanisms can be used to strongly influence the outcome of any decisions made 'democratically' by members. 👉Michels stated that the official goal of representative democracy of eliminating elite rule was impossible, that representative democracy is a facade legitimizing the rule of a particular elite, and that elite rule, which he refers to as oligarchy, is inevitable. 🏆Reasons 👉Bureaucratization and specialization are the driving processes behind the Iron Law. 👉They result in the rise of a group of professional administrators in a hierarchical organization, which in turn leads to the rationalization and routinization of authority and decision-making. 🏆Implications 👉It holds that Democracy is practically and theoretically impossible, especially in large groups and complex organizations. 👉The relative structural fluidity in a small-scale democracy succumbs to "social viscosity" in a large-scale organization. According to the "iron law," democracy and large-scale organization are incompatible. Credit: Wikipedia0,00%
- 15 окт. 2020 г.UPSC Calender 2021 @PoliticalScienceOptionalUpsc0,00%